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Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles, with genetic material freely distributed in the cytoplasm. Key features include: cell wall (peptidoglycan in bacteria), plasma membrane,...
Cell Organelles
Each organelle has specialized structures suited to specific functions: Mitochondria: Double membrane with cristae increasing surface area for ATP synthesis. Matrix contains enzymes for Krebs cycle. ...
Enzyme Action
Enzymes are globular proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions by lowering activation energy. They have specific active sites with complementary shapes to substrates. Induced Fit Model: Enzyme act...
Gas Exchange
The mammalian respiratory system is adapted for efficient gas exchange: Alveolar Structure: - Thin walls (one cell thick) minimize diffusion distance - Large surface area from millions of alveoli - R...
Electronic Configuration
Electrons occupy atomic orbitals in order of increasing energy. The Aufbau principle states electrons fill lowest energy orbitals first. Orbital Types: - s orbitals: Spherical, hold maximum 2 electro...
Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular forces determine physical properties of substances: Van der Waals Forces (London Dispersion): - Present in all molecules due to temporary dipoles - Strength increases with molecular si...
Kinematics
Kinematic equations describe motion with constant acceleration: Key Equations: v = u + at (velocity-time relationship) s = ut + ½at² (displacement-time relationship) v² = u² + 2as (velocity-displacem...
Differentiation
Differentiation finds the rate of change of functions: Basic Rules: - Power rule: d/dx(xⁿ) = nxⁿ⁻¹ - Product rule: d/dx(uv) = u'v + uv' - Quotient rule: d/dx(u/v) = (u'v - uv')/v² - Chain rule: d/dx(...
Multi-Store Model
The Multi-Store Model proposes three separate memory stores: Sensory Register: - Holds sensory information briefly (0.25-2 seconds) - Large capacity but rapid decay - Information lost unless attended...
Poetic Techniques
Effective poetry analysis requires understanding of language, structure, and context: Language Techniques: - Metaphor and simile create comparisons and imagery - Personification gives human qualities...
Rise to Power
Multiple factors enabled Hitler's rise to power: Economic Crisis (1929-1932): - Wall Street Crash caused German economic collapse - Unemployment rose from 1.4 million to 6 million - Middle classes lo...
Volcanic Activity
Volcanic eruptions create multiple hazards requiring different management strategies: Primary Hazards: - Lava flows: Predictable direction but unstoppable, destroy property - Pyroclastic flows: Fast-...